Contents -- List of Abbreviations -- Chapter 1. Introduction -- 1. The Illicit Trade in Cultural Objects - A Scope of the Problem -- I. General Remarks -- II. Cross-Border Recovery of Misappropriated Cultural Property -- 1. The Principle of Justiciability -- 2. Misappropriated Cultural Objects in Litigation -- a. Attorney General of New Zealand v. Ortiz -- b. Government of Iran v. Barakat Galleries Ltd -- 2. Objectives of the Book and Research Task -- 3. Terminology and Delimitation -- I. Movable Cultural Property -- II. Antiquities -- III. Archaeological and Historical Context -- IV. Source Nations and Market Nations -- 4. The Structure of the Book -- Part I: Rights to Cultural Objects -- Chapter 2. Sovereign Rights to Movable Cultural Objects -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Mechanisms of Acquiring Rights to Cultural Objects -- I. Property Rights on the Ground of Ownership Declarations -- 1. Umbrella Statutes -- 2. Conditional Ownership Declarations -- 3. Mixed Law of Finders and State Ownership Approach -- a. The UK Treasure Act 1996 - A Market Nation's Protection Scheme -- b. Germany: The "Schatzregal" -- 4. Dual Regime between Finders Law and Cultural Property Law -- 5. Reporting Duties and Rewards -- 6. The Quality of the Proprietary Title -- a. The Elmali Hoard-Case -- b. Turkish Republic v The City of Basel -- c. Government of Peru v Johnson -- d. United States v McClain -- II. Property Rights on the Grounds of an Immediate Right of Possession -- III. Property Rights on the Ground of Export Legislation -- 1. The Ambit of Export Legislation -- a. No Export Controls -- b. Export Embargos -- c. Classified National Heritage -- 2. Confiscatory Laws -- a. Confiscatory Ownership ex lege -- (1) Automatic Forfeiture -- (2) Moment of Forfeiture.

b. Confiscatory Ownership based upon an Administrative Act -- 3. Export Laws Granting a Right of First Refusal -- a. Compulsory Purchase Offer -- (1) The Waverley System -- (2) The Dutch System -- b. Optional Purchase Offer -- 4. Export Laws not granting Property Rights -- 5. Export Restriction and EU Law -- IV. Property Interests on the Ground of Pre-Emption Rights -- 1. Pre-Emption Rights as a Mechanism to Acquire Fortuitous Finds -- 2. Pre-Emption Rights as Means of Acquiring Property from Private Collectors -- a. Option to Purchase -- b. Right of First Refusal -- c. Right of First Negotiation -- 3. The Proprietary Nature of Options and Pre-Emption Rights -- 4. Pre-Emption Rights and the ECHR -- 5. Pre-Emption or Expropriation -- 3. Mechanisms to Retain Ownership of Cultural Objects in the Public Domain -- I. Objects Res Extra Commercium -- II. Movable Cultural Objects dedicated for Public Use -- 1. The "öffentliche Dienstbarkeit" -- 2. The "dominio eminente" -- III. Restrictions on Disposal -- 1. De-accession Provisions -- a. Arising from Trust -- b. Arising from Museum Governing Statutes -- 2. Exceptions to the Rule -- a. Through Act of Parliament -- b. Through Voluntary Surrender of Title -- 4. Conclusion for Chapter 2 -- Chapter 3. Title to Cultural Objects under the Private Law of Finds -- 1. Introduction -- 2. The Common Law of Finders -- I. Superincumbent Finds -- 1. Priority of Possession -- 2. The Manifest Intention-Test -- II. Subsoil Finds -- III. The Trespassing Finder -- IV. The Employee versus his Master -- V. Finder Obligations -- VI. Concluding Remarks to the Common Law of Finders -- 3. The Civilian Law of Finders -- I. The Acquisition of Title in General -- II. Master versus Servant -- III. Finder versus Occupier -- IV. Fortuitously Discovered Treasure.

1. The Allocation of Title based on Equitable Division -- 2. The Conflict between Civil and Public law -- 3. Treasure Acquired through Trespass -- V. Concluding Remarks to the Civilian Law of Finds -- 4. Excursion: Finders Law as a Means of Protecting Antiquities -- I. The Need for an Incentive to Return Archaeological Finds into Circulation -- II. The Protection of Archaeological Data through the Portable Antiquities Scheme -- 5. Conclusion to Chapter 3 -- Part II: Turning Rights into Claims -- Chapter 4. International Law with Regard to the Recovery of Cultural Objects -- 1. Introduction -- 2. European Union Initiatives -- I. Council Regulation (EC) No 116/2009 -- II. Council Directive 93/7/EEC -- III. Iraq Council Regulation (EC) No 1210/2003 -- IV. Syria Council Regulation (EU) No 1332/2013 -- 3. Uniform Law International Instruments -- I. Treaty of Washington 1935 -- II. The Hague Convention 1954 -- 1. First Protocol of the 1954 Hague Convention -- 2. Second Protocol of the 1954 Hague Convention -- IV. The 1970 UNESCO Convention -- 1. The Principles of the Convention -- 2. Implementing the Convention into National Law -- a. Bilateral Approach -- (1) United States of America -- (2) Switzerland -- b. Multilateral Approach -- (1) Germany -- (2) Netherlands -- c. UK Implementation -- V. The 1995 UNIDROIT Convention -- 1. Principles of the Convention -- 2. Weaknesses Preventing Implementation -- VI. Commonwealth Scheme for the Protection of the Material Cultural Heritage 1993 -- VII. The 2011 UNESCO and UNIDROIT Model Provisions on State Ownership of Undiscovered Cultural Objects -- 4. Conclusion -- Chapter 5. Choice of Law Methodology in International Cultural Property Cases -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Acquisition of Title to Stolen Property.

I. Jurisdictions favouring the Original Owner -- II. Jurisdictions favouring the Good Faith Acquirer -- III. Moderate Jurisdictions -- 3. The Application of the Lex Situs and its Consequences -- 4. Legal Alternatives for Disputes involving Cultural Property -- I. The Law of the Closest Connection -- II. Renvoi -- III. Lex Situs Originis -- 1. The Resolution of the "Institute de Droit International" -- 2. Art. 12 of the EC Directive 93/7 EEC -- 3. Belgian Code on PIL of 16 July 2004 -- IV. The Proposed Choice of Law Rule -- 1. Characterisation of the Object -- 2. Protection of the Good Faith Purchaser -- 3. The Good Faith - Test -- 4. Reversed Burden of Proof -- 5. ARule on Discovery -- 6. The Nationality of the Object -- a. The Closest Connecting Factor -- b. Problematic Constellations -- (1) Orphaned Objects -- (2) State Succession -- (3) Subjective Cultural Importance -- c. Sharing Agreements as an Alternative Method -- 5. Conclusion to Chapter 5 -- Chapter 6. Cross-Border Enforcement and Justiciability in a Comparative Perspective -- 1. Introduction -- 2. International Resolutions on the Justiciability of Foreign Public Law -- I. The Wiesbaden Resolution 1975 -- II. Resolution of the "Institute de Droit International" -- III. Resolution adopted by the International Law Association in 1988 -- 3. England and Wales -- I. Enforcement: Prerogative Claims to Cultural Objects -- 1. Acta Jure Gestionis and Acta Jure Imperii -- a. Attorney General of New Zealand v Ortiz -- b. Iran v Barakat: First Instance Decision -- 2. 'Penal laws' within the Context of Dicey Rule 3 (1) -- 3. 'Other Public Laws' within the Context of Dicey Rule 3 (1) -- a. Unjusiticiable Public Laws - A Conundrum -- b. The Adoption of the 'Governmental Interest' - Test.

II. Recognition: Patrimonial Claims to Cultural Objects -- 1. The Recognition of Claims according to the Doctrine of Vested Rights -- a. Iran v Barakat - Court of Appeal Decision -- b. The Medici-Archives -- c. City of Gotha v Sotheby's -- 2. Recognition based on a Possessory Title -- a. The Common Law Action in Conversion -- b. Immediate Right of Possession as Title under English Law -- 3. Recognition based on Confiscatory Legislation -- a. Possession at the Time of the Confiscatory Act -- b. Lack of Possession at the Time of Confiscatory Act -- III. Cross-Border Enforcement on the Ground of Public Policy -- 1. The Notion of Public Policy -- 2. Public Policy and its Function as a Correction Tool -- a) Positive Public Policy -- b) Negative Public Policy -- c) Transnational Public Policy -- 3. Cultural Property as a Policy Consideration -- IV. Reflections on England and Wales -- 4. The U.S. Approach -- I. The McClain-Doctrine -- II. McClain Revisited - United States v Schultz -- III. Civil Recovery on the Grounds of McClain - An Antique Platter of Gold -- IV. Reflections on U.S. Law -- 5. The German Approach -- I. General Rules -- II. Rules on Cross-Border Enforcement and Justiciability -- 1. The Imprint Theory -- 2. Cross-Border Enforcement on the Ground of Public Policy -- 3. Cross-Border Enforcement Jurisprudence -- a) The Egyptian Sarcophagus-Case -- b) The Greek Coins-Case -- 4. Recognition within the Scope of the Immorality of Conduct -- a) The Nigeria-Decision -- b) Three Phrygian Offering Cups and Two Byzantine Incense Burners -- III. Reflections on German Law -- 6. The Swiss Approach -- I. Swiss Federal Act on Private International Law 1987 -- II. India v Crédit Agricole Indosuez -- III. Reflections on Swiss Law -- IV. Conclusion to Chapter 6 -- Summary -- Bibliography -- Annex.