Virtual REALITY -- Copyright -- Contents -- Preface -- Executive Summary -- RECOMMENDATIONS -- Applications -- Psychological Considerations -- Technology -- Human-Machine Interfaces -- Computer Hardware and Software -- Telerobotics -- Networks -- Evaluation -- Government Policy and Infrastructure -- I OVERVIEW -- II Research And Technology -- 1 Some Psychological Considerations -- RESOLUTION, ILLUSIONS, AND INFORMATION TRANSFER -- MANUAL CONTROL, TRACKING, AND HUMAN OPERATOR MODELS -- Subsystem Decomposition of the Human Operator -- Sensory Substitution -- THE SUBJECTIVE SENSE OF TELEPRESENCE -- ALTERATIONS OF SENSORIMOTOR LOOPS -- DISCOMFORT -- LEARNING AND PROBLEM SOLVING -- MOTIVATION -- ATTITUDE, OPINION FORMATION, AND PERSONALITY EFFECTS -- RESEARCH NEEDS -- 2 The Visual Channel -- STATUS OF THE RELEVANT HUMAN RESEARCH -- SE-Relevant Aspects of Visual System Organization -- Sensory Constraints for Displays -- The Third Dimension -- Augmented-Reality Systems -- Sensory Adaptation to Visual Distortion -- STATUS OF THE TECHNOLOGY -- Components and Technologies -- Display Surfaces and Optics -- Autostereoscopic Displays -- Integrated Systems -- Head-Mounted Displays -- Off-Head Displays -- Advantages and Disadvantages of Head-Mounted and Off-Head Displays -- RESEARCH NEEDS -- 3 The Auditory Channel -- STATUS OF THE RELEVANT HUMAN RESEARCH -- Resolution and Information Transfer Rates -- Auditory Displays -- Spatial Perception -- Auditory Scene Analysis -- Adaptation to Unnatural Perceptual Cues -- STATUS OF THE TECHNOLOGY -- Headphone Displays -- Room-Acoustics Modeling -- Off-Head, Hear-Through, and Augmented-Reality Displays -- Computer Generation of Nonspeech Audio -- Synthesis Techniques -- Synthesis Technology -- RESEARCH NEEDS -- Perceptual Issues -- Technology -- 4 Haptic Interfaces -- STATUS OF THE RELEVANT HUMAN RESEARCH.

The Human Haptic System -- Input-Output Variables of Haptic Interactions -- Sensing and Control of Interface Variables -- Limb Position and Motion -- Net Forces of Contact -- Perception of Contact Conditions and Object Properties -- Summary -- Tactile Sensory System -- Kinesthetic Sensory System -- Motor System -- Active Touch Involving All Three Systems -- STATUS OF THE TECHNOLOGY -- Terminology and Variables of Haptic Interfaces -- Classification of Haptic Interfaces -- Current Technology -- Hardware -- Software -- Summary of Current Technology and Future Possibilities -- RESEARCH NEEDS -- Human Haptics -- Biomechanical Investigations -- Psychophysical Investigations -- Technology Development -- Hardware -- Software -- Matching Performance of Humans and Haptic Devices -- Comfort (Ergonomics) -- Methods of Stimulation -- Evaluation of Haptic Interfaces -- 5 Position Tracking and Mapping -- HAND TRACKING -- EYE TRACKING -- HEAD TRACKING -- BODY MAPPING AND TRACKING -- Mechanical Trackers -- Goniometers -- Ground-Based Linkages -- Magnetic Trackers -- Optical Sensing -- Passive Stereo Vision Systems -- Marker Systems -- Structured Light Systems -- Laser Radar -- Laser Interferometers -- Acoustic Trackers -- Inertial Tracking -- Eye Tracking -- RESEARCH NEEDS -- 6 Whole-Body Motion, Motion Sickness, and Locomotion Interfaces -- STATUS OF THE RELEVANT HUMAN RESEARCH -- Sensorimotor Stability During Self-Motion -- Head Movements -- Arm Movements -- Locomotion -- Body Orientation -- Illusions of Self-Motion -- Motion Sickness -- WHOLE-BODY MOTION AND LOCOMOTION INTERFACES -- Inertial Displays -- Full Inertial Displays -- Partial Inertial Displays -- Variable Gravity Displays -- Locomotion Displays -- Treadmill-Type Displays -- Haptic Interfaces for Individual Feet -- Noninertial Displays -- Visual Displays -- Auditory Displays -- Vestibular Displays.

Proprioceptive/Kinesthetic Displays -- RESEARCH NEEDS -- 7 Speech, Physiology, and Other Interface Components -- SPEECH RECOGNITION AND SYNTHESIS -- Speech Recognition -- State of the Art in Speech Recognition -- Speech Synthesis -- PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES -- Autonomic Nervous System Responses -- Brain Activity -- Cognitive Function -- Functional and Structural Information -- Brain-Actuated Control -- OTHER INTERFACE COMPONENTS -- 8 Computer Hardware and Software for the Generation of Virtual Environments -- HARDWARE FOR COMPUTER GRAPHICS -- Notable Graphics Workstations and Graphics Hardware -- Graphics Architectures for VE Rendering -- Computation and Data Management Issues in Visual Scene Generation -- An Example: The Virtual Wind Tunnel -- Strategies for Meeting Requirements -- Graphics Capabilities in PC-Based VE Systems -- SOFTWARE FOR THE GENERATION OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS -- Interaction Software -- Existing Technologies -- Design Approaches and Issues to be Addressed -- Visual Scene Navigation Software -- Survey of Currently Developed Navigation Software -- Survey of Hierarchical Data Structure Techniques for Polygon Flow Minimization -- Application-Specific Solutions -- World Modeling -- Geometric Modeling: Construction and Acquisition -- Dynamic Model Matching and Augmented Reality -- Physical Simulation for Visual Displays -- Autonomous Agents -- Populating the World: NPSNET as an Example -- Hypermedia Integration -- HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED -- RESEARCH NEEDS -- Hardware -- Software -- Interaction Software -- Visual Scene Navigation Software -- Modeling -- TECHNICAL APPENDIX -- Graphics Architectures for VE Rendering -- Silicon Graphics from the IRIS-1400 to the RealityEngine 2 -- Onyx RealityEngine2 -- Evans & Sutherland Freedom 3000.

Graphics Hardware from the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill: PixelPlanes 4, 5, and PixelFlow -- 9 Telerobotics -- INTRODUCTION -- Relation to Robotics -- Relation to Virtual Environments -- REMOTE MANIPULATORS -- Kinematics -- General Positioning Capabilities -- Redundancies -- Workspace -- Serial Versus Parallel Mechanism -- Kinematic Solvability -- Actuation -- Macrorobots -- Micromotion Actuators -- End Effectors -- Sensors -- Joint Motion Sensors -- Joint Torque Sensors -- Wrist Force/Torque Sensors -- Tactile Sensors -- Proximity Sensors -- REMOTE VEHICLES -- Systems -- Class 1 Systems: Power and Data Tethered -- Class 2 Systems: Data Tethered -- Class 3 Systems: Nontethered Telemetry -- Class 4 Systems: Nontethered, No Telemetry -- Technologies and Directions -- Sensor Systems -- Platforms -- High-Level Robotic Control -- Human-Machine Interface -- LOW-LEVEL CONTROL OF TELEOPERATORS -- Position-Based Teleoperation -- Coupled Control of Manipulators for Force-Feedback Teleoperation -- Modeling -- Delay -- Robustness -- Scaling -- Performance Evaluation -- SUPERVISORY CONTROL -- Generic Paradigm for Supervisory Control -- Status of Research in Supervisory Control -- Computer-Based Planning of Telerobot Actions -- Teaching the Telerobot What to Do -- Computer Assistance in Monitoring -- Intervening and Learning -- Predictor Displays to Cope with Time Delay -- Visual and Haptic Aids -- Performance Measurement, Learning, and Modeling -- REAL-TIME COMPUTING -- Requirements -- Levels of Control -- Low-Level Control -- Intermediate Level Control -- High-Level Control -- Latency Versus Update Period -- System Architecture -- Processors and Computing Platforms -- Parallel Processing and Communications -- Operating Systems and Development Environments -- RESEARCH NEEDS -- Handling Communication Delays -- Accurate, Real-Time Simulations.

Real-Time Computing -- Better Robot Hardware -- Multiaxis, High-Resolution Tactile Sensors -- Robust Proximity Sensors -- Multiaxis Force Sensors -- High-Performance Joints -- Improved Telerobotic Controllers -- 10 Networking and Communications -- STATUS OF THE TECHNOLOGY -- Wide-Area Networks -- Local-Area Networks -- Issues to be Addressed -- COMMUNICATIONS SOFTWARE -- RESEARCH NEEDS -- Hardware -- Software -- 11 Evaluation of Synthetic Environment Systems -- GENERAL ISSUES IN SYSTEM EVALUATION -- SPECIAL ISSUES IN SE EVALUATION -- Evaluation of System Characteristics -- Observation and Measurement of Human Behavior in SEs -- III Applications -- 12 Specific Applications of SE Systems -- DESIGN, MANUFACTURING, AND MARKETING -- Rationale -- Specific Manufacturing Applications -- Building Prototypes Electronically -- Electronic Configuration and Management of Production Lines -- Exemplar Industries -- Textiles -- Aerospace -- MEDICINE AND HEALTH CARE -- Rationale -- Specific Medical Applications -- Preservice and Continuing Medical Education -- Teaching Anatomy -- Surgical Training -- Accreditation -- Surgical Planning -- Telemedicine -- Telesurgery -- Rehabilitation -- Issues to be Addressed -- TELEOPERATION FOR HAZARDOUS OPERATIONS -- Rationale -- Survey of Major Applications -- Toxic Environments -- Space Operations -- Teleoperated Heavy Machinery -- Off-the-Ground Environments -- Firefighting and Security -- Bulk Transportation Environments -- Ocean Environments -- Infrastructure and Research Needs -- TRAINING -- Rationale -- The Future -- Specific Applications -- Training Transfer -- Issues to be Addressed -- Research Needs -- EDUCATION -- Rationale -- Specific Applications -- Simulated Field Trips and Telepresence -- Spatial Relations -- Playrooms to Build Things -- Micro Worlds -- Simulations -- Issues to be Addressed -- Desirability.

Effectiveness and Feasibility.