Intro -- Foreword -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Contents -- 1 A Brief History of Marine Litter Research -- Abstract -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Seabirds and Seals-The First Signs of Trouble -- 1.3 The Early 1970s-Pellets and Other Problems in the North Atlantic -- 1.4 Shifting Focus to the North Pacific Ocean -- 1.5 Into the Southern Hemisphere -- 1.6 Aloha-The Marine Debris Conferences -- 1.7 Mitigation Measures and Long-Term Changes in Marine Litter -- 1.8 Plastic Degradation and the Microplastic Boom -- 1.9 Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Part I Abiotic Aspects of Marine Litter Pollution -- 2 Global Distribution, Composition and Abundance of Marine Litter -- Abstract -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Composition -- 2.3 Distribution -- 2.3.1 Beaches -- 2.3.2 Floating Marine Debris -- 2.3.3 Seafloor -- 2.3.4 Microplastics -- 2.4 Summary and Conclusions -- References -- 3 Persistence of Plastic Litter in the Oceans -- Abstract -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Buoyancy and Sampling Errors -- 3.3 Fate of Plastics Entering the Oceans -- 3.3.1 Photo-Oxidative Degradation -- 3.3.2 Mechanisms of Photo-Oxidation -- 3.3.3 Weathering Under Marine Conditions -- 3.4 Microplastics in the Oceans -- 3.5 Conclusions -- References -- Part II Biological Implications of Marine Litter -- 4 Deleterious Effects of Litter on Marine Life -- Abstract -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Entanglement -- 4.2.1 Ways of Entanglement -- 4.2.2 Effects of Entanglement -- 4.3 Smothering -- 4.4 Ingestion of Plastic -- 4.4.1 Ways of Plastic Ingestion -- 4.4.1.1 Intentional Ingestion -- Foraging Strategy -- Color -- Age -- Sex -- 4.4.1.2 Accidental and Secondary Ingestion -- 4.4.2 Impacts of Plastic Ingestion -- 4.4.2.1 Direct Mortality Caused by Plastic Ingestion -- 4.4.3 Indirect Physical Effects of Plastic Ingestion -- 4.4.3.1 Chemical Effects from Plastic Ingestion.

4.4.3.2 Chain of Impacts Related to Plastic Ingestion -- 4.4.4 Impacts from Species Dispersal -- 4.5 Discussion -- References -- 5 The Complex Mixture, Fate and Toxicity of Chemicals Associated with Plastic Debris in the Marine Environment -- Abstract -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.1.1 Plastic Marine Debris: A Complex Mixture of Chemicals -- 5.1.2 Plastics and Their Chemical Ingredients -- 5.1.3 The Accumulation of Chemicals on Plastic Debris in the Marine Environment -- 5.1.3.1 Spatial Variability -- 5.1.3.2 Variability by Plastic Type and Size -- 5.1.4 Plastic Debris, Environmental Chemical Contaminants and Environmental Fate -- 5.1.5 Plastic Debris as a Sink for Environmental Contaminants -- 5.1.5.1 Process of Accumulation -- 5.1.5.2 Rate of Accumulation -- 5.1.5.3 Comparisons with Other Environmental Media -- 5.1.6 Plastic Debris as a Source of Environmental Contaminants -- 5.1.7 Global Transport -- 5.1.7.1 Food Web Transport -- 5.2 Toxicity of Plastic Debris to Marine Life -- 5.2.1 Hazards Associated with Plastic Ingredients -- 5.2.2 Hazards Associated with the Complex Mixture of Plastic and Sorbed Pollutants -- 5.3 Conclusion -- References -- 6 Marine Litter as Habitat and Dispersal Vector -- Abstract -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Floating Litter as a Habitat -- 6.3 Composition of Rafting Assemblages on Floating Litter -- 6.3.1 Taxonomic Overview -- 6.3.2 Biological Traits of Rafting Invertebrates on Floating Litter -- 6.3.2.1 Mobility -- 6.3.2.2 Feeding Biology -- 6.3.2.3 Reproductive Traits -- 6.3.3 Other Species Attracted to Marine Litter -- 6.3.4 Succession of the Rafting Community -- 6.4 Floating Litter as Dispersal Vector -- 6.5 Summary and Outlook -- References -- Part III Microplastics -- 7 Microplastics in the Marine Environment: Sources, Consequences and Solutions -- Abstract -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Definitions of Microplastics.

7.3 Spatial and Temporal Patterns in the Abundance of Microplastics -- 7.4 Anticipated Future Trends -- 7.5 Conclusions -- References -- 8 Methodology Used for the Detection and Identification of Microplastics-A Critical Appraisal -- Abstract -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Sampling for Microplastics -- 8.2.1 Water Samples -- 8.2.2 Sediment Samples -- 8.2.2.1 Beaches -- 8.2.2.2 Subtidal Sediments -- 8.2.3 Biota -- 8.3 Laboratory Preparation of Samples -- 8.3.1 Extraction of Microplastics -- 8.3.2 Size Fractionation -- 8.3.3 Sample Purification -- 8.4 Identification of Microplastics -- 8.4.1 Visual Identification -- 8.4.2 Identification of Microplastics by Their Chemical Composition -- 8.4.2.1 Density Separation with Subsequent C:H:N Analysis -- 8.4.2.2 Pyrolysis-GCMS -- 8.4.2.3 Raman Spectroscopy -- 8.4.2.4 IR Spectroscopy -- 8.5 Case Study -- 8.5.1 Materials and Methods -- 8.5.1.1 Sediment Sampling -- 8.5.1.2 Extraction of Microplastics -- 8.5.1.3 Visual Quantification of Microplastics -- 8.5.1.4 FPA-based Micro-FTIR Spectroscopy -- 8.5.2 Results -- 8.5.2.1 FPA-based Micro-FTIR Analysis of Pre-extracted Particles in Sediment Samples -- 8.5.2.2 Granular Particles -- 8.5.2.3 Fragments and Fibres -- 8.5.3 Summary -- 8.6 Conclusions -- References -- 9 Sources and Pathways of Microplastics to Habitats -- Abstract -- 9.1 Defining Sources and Pathways of Microplastic -- 9.2 Larger Plastic Litter -- 9.3 Cleaning Products -- 9.4 Medicines -- 9.5 Textiles -- 9.6 Outlook and Conclusion -- References -- 10 Microplastics in the Marine Environment: Distribution, Interactions and Effects -- Abstract -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 The Global Distribution of Microplastics in the Sea -- 10.2.1 Microplastics in the Pacific Ocean -- 10.2.2 Microplastics in the Atlantic Ocean -- 10.2.3 Microplastics in European Seas and the Mediterranean Sea.

10.2.4 Microplastics in the Indian Ocean and Marginal Seas -- 10.2.5 Microplastics in Polar Regions -- 10.2.6 Modelling the Distribution of Microplastics -- 10.2.7 Summary -- 10.3 Interactions of Microplastics with Marine Organisms -- 10.3.1 Ingestion -- 10.3.1.1 Planktonic Invertebrates -- 10.3.1.2 Benthic Invertebrates -- 10.3.1.3 Fish -- 10.3.1.4 Sea Birds -- 10.3.1.5 Marine Mammals -- 10.3.1.6 Sea Turtles -- 10.3.2 Trophic Transfer -- 10.3.3 Microplastic Effect on Habitats -- 10.3.4 Summary -- 10.4 Conclusion -- References -- 11 Modeling the Role of Microplastics in Bioaccumulation of Organic Chemicals to Marine Aquatic Organisms. A Critical Review -- Abstract -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Models to Assess the Importance of Microplastic Ingestion -- 11.2.1 Equilibrium Partitioning -- 11.2.2 Decomposition and Disintegration -- 11.2.3 Bioaccumulation -- 11.3 Model-Based Assessment of Implications and Risks of Plastic-Associated Chemicals -- 11.4 Summarizing Discussion and Recommendations -- References -- 12 Nanoplastics in the Aquatic Environment. Critical Review -- Abstract -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Sources, Detection and Occurrence of Nanoplastic -- 12.2.1 Sources of Nanoplastic -- 12.2.2 Detection and Occurrence of Nanoplastic -- 12.3 Fate of Nanoplastic -- 12.4 Bioaccumulation and Effects -- 12.4.1 Bioaccumulation and Effects of Nanoplastics -- 12.4.2 Implications of Chemicals and Nanofillers Associated with Nanoplastics -- 12.5 Specific Challenges in Nanoplastic Effect Research -- 12.6 Implications and Recommendations -- References -- Part IV Socio-economic Implications of Marine Anthropogenic Litter -- 13 Micro- and Nano-plastics and Human Health -- Abstract -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 What Kinds of Plastics Are in Use? -- 13.3 Plastics and Human Health -- 13.4 Micro- and Nanoplastics.

13.4.1 Occurrence of Micro- and Nanoplastics in the Environment -- 13.4.2 Micro- and Nanoplastics and Human Health -- 13.4.3 Ingestion of Micro- and Nanoplastics and Uptake Across the Gut -- 13.4.4 Interaction of Microspheres and Nanoparticles with Cells and Tissues -- 13.4.5 Interactions with Biological Materials and Cells -- 13.5 Assessing the Risks that Micro- and Nanoplastics Pose to Human Health -- 13.5.1 Leaching of Toxic Chemicals from Plastics -- 13.5.2 Bisphenol a and Human Health -- 13.5.3 Safer Alternatives to BPA -- 13.5.4 Novel Polymer Formulations -- 13.5.5 Nanopolymers and Nanofillers -- 13.6 Conclusions and Future Work -- References -- 14 The Economics of Marine Litter -- Abstract -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Estimating the Economic Impacts of Marine Litter -- 14.2.1 Beach Cleaning, Tourism and Recreation -- 14.2.2 Shipping and Yachting -- 14.2.3 Fisheries -- 14.2.4 Aquaculture -- 14.2.5 Agriculture -- 14.2.6 Human Health -- 14.2.7 Summary -- 14.3 Marine Litter and Economic Incentives -- 14.3.1 Landfill TaxesLevies -- 14.3.2 Plastic Bag Initiatives -- 14.3.3 Packaging Producer Responsibility in the EU -- 14.3.4 Charges for Port Reception Facilities -- 14.4 Choosing Economic Instruments -- 14.5 Conclusions -- References -- 15 Regulation and Management of Marine Litter -- Abstract -- 15.1 Introduction -- 15.2 Instruments of Marine Litter at International, Regional and National Levels -- 15.2.1 General Mechanisms of Instruments -- 15.2.2 Examples of Instruments on Marine Litter -- 15.2.2.1 International Instruments -- United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) -- Annex V of MARPOL 7378 -- London Protocol -- Action Plan on Tackling the Inadequacy of PRFs -- UNEP Regional Sea Programme -- UNEPIOC Guidelines on Surveying and Monitoring of Marine Litter -- UNEP Guidelines on the Use of Market-Based and Economic Instruments.

UNEPFAO Abandoned, Lost or Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear.